Other key features of cerebral cortex include enormous species differences in the complexity of cortical convolutions as well as in surface area, which ranges from 920 cm 2 per hemisphere in humans and 96 cm 2 in the macaque ( Donahue et al., 2018) to 0.84 cm 2 in mice ( Herculano-Houzel et al., 2013). The neocortex is a sheet-like layered structure (6 layers in most areas) whose thickness varies across regions but on average is 2.6 mm in humans ( Glasser et al., 2016b), 2.0 mm in macaque monkeys ( Donahue et al., 2018) and 0.89 mm in mice ( Lerch et al., 2008). This functional diversity is all the more remarkable given the relative uniformity of cortical structure, especially for the neocortex, its dominant subdivision. In humans, it mediates human-specific behaviors such as language, tool use, and abstract thought. The cerebral cortex is the dominant structure of the mammalian brain and is largely responsible for a diverse range of functions related to sensory perception, volitional movements, cognition, memory, and emotion. We discuss the limitations as well as strengths of current non-invasive methods of mapping brain function, architecture, connectivity, and topography and of current approaches to mapping the brain’s functional networks. We contrast our semi-automated approach to human multi-modal cortical mapping with various extant fully automated human brain parcellations that are based on only a single imaging modality, and offer suggestions on how to best advance the non-invasive brain parcellation field. These studies also provide a neuroanatomical foundation for mapping human cerebral cortex using non-invasive neuroimaging, including a new map of human cortical areas that we generated using a semi-automated analysis of high quality multi-modal neuroimaging data. Here we review recent progress in multi-modal mapping of mouse and nonhuman primate cortex, mainly using invasive experimental methods. Given their importance to understanding brain organization, mapping cortical areas across species is a major objective of systems neuroscience and has been a century-long challenge. Cortical areas interact with one another to form functional networks that mediate behavior, and each area may be a part of multiple, partially overlapping networks. Some areas also have characteristic within-area mesoscale organization, reflecting specialized representations of distinct types of information. A combination of local connectivity (within-area microcircuitry) and long-distance (between-area) connectivity enables each area to perform a unique set of computations. Cerebral cortex in mammals contains a mosaic of cortical areas that differ in function, architecture, connectivity, and/or topographic organization.
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